INTRODUCTION:

Identity politics refers to a form of activism where groups sharing common racial, religious, ethnic, social, or cultural features assert group distinctiveness to gain "power and recognition in the context of perceived inequality or injustice"¹ . The concept of identity politics gained intellectual legitimacy in the mid-20th century with the rise of several social movements in terms of caste, linguistic, and political mobilization. Generally, political identities are constructed on theses dynamics to mobilize the electorate.

In the contemporary Indian politics, caste identity has emerged as a crucial factor within the framework of social engineering. In this context, the present paper analyses the issue of caste mobilization in Indian politics.

Conceptual Frame work:

The term 'caste' is derived from the Spanish and Portuguese word 'casta', meaning bloodline purity, which became popular in the 15th century. In India, it originally implied a "social division system aimed at preserving the purity of bloodlines within a group, often characterized by endogamous marriage practices and shared ancestry"². Ancient Vedic texts, composed between 1500 and 500 BCE, mentioned an early social organization based on four varnas: Brahmins (priests and teachers), Kshatriyas (warriors and rulers), Vaishyas (merchants and farmers), and Shudras (laborers and service providers). These varnas solidly constitute the caste system in India. However, the period between 500 BCE and 500 CE witnessed the creation of influential texts like the Manusmriti (Laws of Manu), which codified caste rules and considered birth as the primary determinant of social/caste status, ultimately restricting social mobility³.

Caste mobilization is a recent phenomenon associated with resistance against ritual impurity, pollution, and social stigma⁴.Through caste mobilization, marginalized groups assert their distinct caste identities and not only challenge dominant narratives of superiority-inferiority but also strategically utilize such identities as a basis for political solidarity, electoral mobilization, and demands for equality and justice⁵. Thus, caste mobilization significantly contributes to the emergence of identity politics, thereby fundamentally transforming the public discourse on caste.

Strategies of Caste Mobilization

In India, diverse and multi-faceted strategies have been adopted for caste mobilization. These include political, socio-economic, and cultural strategies:

· Political Strategies: In contemporary electoral politics, caste mobilization has become a key factor. Caste leaders actively rally behind political parties to secure electoral tickets for candidates from their castes so that they will vote for the party en-bloc⁶. Accordingly, political parties form alliances based on caste dynamics and politicize caste bases to mobilize groups and identities to gain political power. Using this strategy, several regional parties have been formed to pursue explicit caste agendas. Political parties like the Samajwadi Party (SP), Rashtriya Janata Dal (RJD), and the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) have been formed to mobilize and empower their respective caste groups and resist upper-caste dominance⁷.

· Socio-Economic Strategies: Caste movements in India are organized around a socio-economic agenda which includes demands for land reforms, redistribution, equity, and resource access. Social strategies are employed to bring marginalized caste groups into the mainstream and empower them socially. Political parties undertake social engineering to create vote banks and mobilize caste groups. Different political parties mobilize voters with specific caste-community formulations, such as the Samajwadi Party’s PDA (Pichhla, Dalit, Alpasankhyak), the BSP’s Dalit card, and the RJD’s MY (Muslim and Yadav) alliance⁸. Further, economic strategies involve economic empowerment by challenging occupational restrictions on marginalized castes. These groups are encouraged to move away from traditional occupational stigmas and join non-traditional occupations that emerged with industrialization and modernization.

· Cultural Strategies: Cultural strategies are equally important for caste mobilization. Political parties challenge traditional discriminatory norms and advocate for the rejection of Brahminical or upper-caste supremacy⁹. They support lower castes in adopting new names or titles and publicly displaying caste pride. The concept of "Sanskritization" is adhered to facilitating lower castes in adopting upper-caste behaviors and rituals to acquire higher social status¹⁰. Significantly, cultural strategies challenge notions of purity and pollution, undermining entrenched caste hierarchies.

Manifestation of Caste Mobilization: Major Caste Movements:

In India, caste mobilization is manifested through a series of caste movements aimed at challenging oppression across political, socio-economic, and cultural spheres. These movements span pre-independence social reforms and post-independence political assertion:

Pre-Independence Caste Movements:

Caste mobilization started in India during the pre-independence era in the form of social reform movements primarily aimed at dismantling oppressive Brahminical religion and culture:

· Satyashodhak Samaj Movement: Jyotirao Phule, a social reformer from the Mali community in Maharashtra, formed the Satyashodhak Samaj in 1873 and launched a powerful movement against upper-caste domination and Brahminical supremacy¹¹. He took initiatives to open schools for untouchables and women, promoted non-Brahmin marriages, fought against oppressive religious rituals, and advocated for an egalitarian society.

· Self-Respect Movement: E.V. Ramasamy "Periyar" started the ‘Self-Respect Movement’ in South India in the 1920s, challenging Brahminical dominance and caste discrimination¹². Through this movement, Periyar sought to dismantle the socio-cultural hierarchy based on birth, emphasized rationalism/atheism, and advocated for dalit rights. Ultimately, a major change was introduced through the self-respect marriage system (Suyamariyathai or Seerthiruttha marriages), which solemnized marriages without Brahmin priests, promoted love marriages, and encouraged widow remarriage. This system was formally recognized by law in Madras in 1967¹³.

· Vaikom Satyagraha: Led by activists like K.P. Kesava Menon in Kerala (1924–1925), this movement demanded the entry of untouchables into Hindu temples and the use of surrounding public roads. This received crucial strategic support from Mahatma Gandhi¹⁴.

· Movement by Narayana Guru: Sree Narayana Guru initiated a movement in Kerala for the upliftment of the Ezhavas, a backward caste traditionally associated with toddy-tapping who faced severe untouchability. He constructed temples open to all castes and championed education under his philosophy of "One Caste, One Religion, One God for Mankind"¹⁵.

· Justice Movement: The Justice Movement, led by T.M. Nair and P. Theagaraya Chetty starting in 1916, advocated for non-Brahmin representation in the Madras Presidency. This movement struggled against untouchability and advocated for women's rights across caste barriers¹⁶.

Post-Independence Caste Movements:

In the post-independence period, caste mobilization evolved from social reform into robust political assertion focused on systemic rights:

1. Ambedkar's Legacy: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar played a foundational role in shaping modern lower-caste discourse. As the chairman of the Constitution Drafting Committee, he guaranteed legal protections against discrimination and incorporated affirmative action through reservations (Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes) to ensure equal opportunities and representation¹⁷. His famous slogan—"Educate, Agitate, Organize"—remains a foundational catalyst for dalit mobilization.

2. Dalit Panthers (1972): Drawing inspiration from the Black Panther Party of USA, young dalit writers and activists in Maharashtra, including Namdeo Dhasal and Raja Dhale, formed the Dalit Panthers in 1972¹⁸. Fusing the ideologies of Karl Marx, B.R. Ambedkar, and Jyotirao Phule, they fiercely critiqued upper-caste capitalists and advocated for radical emancipation. Their radical stance sparked a literary renaissance, producing a profound new genre of Dalit protest literature.

3. Mandal Commission: Appointed in 1979 under the chairmanship of B.P. Mandal, the commission was tasked with identifying Other Backward Classes (OBCs). The implementation of its recommendations in 1990—granting 27% reservation in government jobs and educational institutions—became a cornerstone for heightened political mobilization among backward communities, leading to the rise of heavy-weight regional political parties¹⁹.

4. Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP): Kanshi Ram formed the BSP in 1984 with the motto of securing social justice for the Bahujan Samaj (comprising Dalits, OBCs, and religious minorities). Under the leadership of Mayawati, the party achieved major electoral success in Uttar Pradesh by engineering broad anti-hegemonial coalitions to capture political power²⁰.

Challenges to Caste Mobilization:

Despite its successes, the process of caste mobilization faces notable structural challenges:

· Internal Challenges: The majority of broad caste categories are fragmented into competitive sub-castes. This internal factionalism leads to intra-caste competition for political power and reservation quotas, weakening broader solidarity. Furthermore, political parties often manipulate these divisions, elevating a select group of factional caste leaders who form a "creamy layer" or new elite, occasionally prioritizing personal and political advancement over community welfare²¹.

· External Challenges: Upper-caste groups frequently express anti-reservation sentiments and remain critical of affirmative action policies. Concurrently, systemic caste-based discrimination, social segregation, and atrocities continue to present violent hurdles to lower-caste mobilization ²². Critics also argue that the politicization of caste often perpetuates and hardens social divisions rather than dismantling them, thereby undermining the democratic ideal of a casteless society.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION:

Caste movements provide stimulus to caste mobilization or caste politics in India. The political parties are shifting their agenda from development to caste politics as the latter create an emotional identity. They find it easy to consolidate their vote bank on the basis of caste as the developmental as well as national issues have become fatigue for political gains. Even the political parties have gone to the extent of demanding caste census to ensure proportionate share of castes in national wealth and other opportunities. In Lok Sabha Election 2024 , the political parties like Samajwadi Party has played a caste card-PDA( Pichhla, Dalit and Alpa Sankhyak) which has benefited the party with rich political dividends. This has become an eye opener for the political parties to concentrate more on caste agenda.

In spite of formidable challenges, caste mobilization within the framework of identity politics has successfully empowered marginalized groups. Today, it remains an enduring socio-political phenomenon, demonstrating the highly adaptive, dynamic nature of the caste system as it continually reshapes itself to navigate changing democratic realities.

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Received on 21.05.2026 Revised on 09.06.2026

Accepted on 25.06.2026 Published on 22.08.2026

Available online from August 25, 2026

Res. J. of Humanities and Social Sciences. 2026;17(3):169-172.

DOI: 10.52711/2321-5828.2026.00032

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